Authors : Adewunmi, Abiodun Adewale; Fatorisa Odunayo Olawumi; Akinpelu Olusegun Peter; Adelola Opeyemi

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 8 - August

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/3czeeawp

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26aug1414

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Abstract : Due to COVID-19, much attention was drawn to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices in educational institutions around the world. While the emergency period prompted enhanced hygiene compliance, questions remain about the factors that predict sustained hygiene behaviour in the post-pandemic context. This study assessed the predictors of hygiene practices among staff in three federal tertiary institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria: Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB), Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro (FPI), and Federal College of Education, Osiele (FCE). Krejcie and Morgan formula was adopted to determine the sample size of 138. Data collection was done using a cross-sectional survey design on 135 staff members via structured questionnaires and analysed using descriptive statistics and Likert-scale perception indices. The study tested 15 possible predictors, such as awareness of sanitation, poverty, adherence to guidelines, investment in infrastructure, and community involvement. It was found that sanitation awareness was the strongest predictor in all three institutions (Factors of WASH index (FWI) scores of 4.83, 4.38 and 3.68 respectively), then came poverty-related factors (4.15, 3.94, and 4.23) and strict guidelines enforcement (4.04, 3.98, and 4.13). Facility maintenance remained, however, the least significant factor (FWI scores of 1.18, 1.10, and 2.50), indicating a severe lack of association between awareness of institutions about the importance of hygiene and the commitment to the physical infrastructure that underlies it. Hygiene practice outcomes varied across institutions, with FUNAAB and FPI achieving higher mean scores (3.13 and 3.53) than FCE (3.07). The results suggest that successful hygiene promotion in the post-pandemic period should be based on an integrated approach that incorporates both long-term awareness efforts and long-term infrastructure development with regular monitoring for compliance, as well as production of hygiene products and inclusion of hygiene assistance to staff and students welfare.

Keywords : COVID-19, Hygiene Practices, Predictors, Tertiary Institutions, Awareness, Nigeria

References :

1. O. E. Fagunwa, T. Mthiyane, A. Fagunwa, K. I. Olayemi, A. Alozie, H. Onyeaka, & A. Ojo, Priority regions for eliminating open defecation in Africa: implications for antimicrobial resistance. Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 27(1), pp. 2675-2699, 2025.
2. Wash, U., & INDICATORS, P. W. Water, sanitation and hygiene. 2015
3. World Health Organization, Sanitation and hygiene (No. WHO/FWC/PHE/EPE/11.02). World Health Organization. 2011
4. O. O. Donde, E. Atoni, A.W. Muia, & P. T. Yillia (2021). COVID-19 pandemic: Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) as a critical control measure remains a major challenge in low-income countries. Water research, vol. 191, pp. 116793, 2021
5. M. Kanyangarara, S. Allen, S.S. Jiwani, & D. Fuente,  Access to water, sanitation and hygiene services in health facilities in sub-Saharan Africa 2013–2018: results of health facility surveys and implications for COVID-19 transmission. BMC health services research, vol. 21(1), pp. 601, 2021
6. S. White, A. H. Thorseth, R. Dreibelbis, & V. Curtis, The determinants of handwashing behaviour in domestic settings: An integrative systematic review. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, vol. 227, pp. 113512, 2020.
7. U. Abubakar, Point-prevalence survey of hospital acquired infections in three acute care hospitals in Northern Nigeria. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, vol. 9(1), pp. 63, 2020.
8. C. P. Emenike, I.T. Tenebe, D.O. Omole, B.U. Ngene, B.I. Oniemayin, O. Maxwell, & B.I. Onoka, Accessing safe drinking water in sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and challenges in South–West Nigeria. Sustainable cities and society, vol. 30, pp. 263-272, 2017.
9. H. O. Odibo, I. O. D. Edike, & F.I. Sunday, Knowledge, attitude, and practice of hand hygiene among On-campus undergraduate students at the University of Calabar, Nigeria. medRxiv, 2025-11.
10. A. Bowen, H. Ma, J. Ou, W. Billhimer, T. Long, E.  Mintz, R. M.  Hoekstra,  & S. Luby, A cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of a handwashing-promotion program in Chinese primary schools. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 76(6), pp. 1166–1173, 2007.
11. M. C. Freeman, L. E. Greene, R. Dreibelbis, S. Saboori, R. Muga, B. Brumback, & R. Rheingans, Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene and sanitation programme on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya. Tropical Medicine and International Health, vol. 17(3), pp. 380–391, 2014.
12. D. O. Olukanni, D. O.  Iyiola, & C. O. Esu, Water, sanitation and hygiene practices in Ogun State: Impacts and implications for post-covid-19 era. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 1036, No. 1, pp. 012001). IOP Publishing, March 2021.
13. WHO/UNICEF Joint Water Supply, & Sanitation Monitoring Programme, Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 update and MDG assessment. World Health Organization, 2015.
14. E. Otto, A. Opatoki, & D. Luyi, Water, sanitation and hygiene practice among students in secondary school, Ijebu Ode, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science and Economics, vol. 1(3), pp. 15-19, 2022.
15. I. M. Rosenstock, The health belief model and preventive health behavior. Health education monographs, vol. 2(4), pp. 354-386, 1974.
16. C. J. Carpenter, A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of health belief model variables in predicting behavior. Health communication, vol. 25(8), pp. 661-669, 2010.
17. K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & K. Viswanath, Health behavior: Theory, research, and practice. Eds. John Wiley & Sons, 2015,
18. B. C. Mbakaya, F. W. Kalembo, & M. Zgambo, Use, adoption, and effectiveness of tippy-tap handwashing station in promoting hand hygiene practices in resource-limited settings: a systematic review. BMC public health, vol. 20(1), pp. 1005, 2020.
19. A. Bandura, Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, vol. 50(2), pp/ 248-287, 1991.
20. A. Bandura, A social cognitive perspective on positive psychology. International Journal of Social Psychology,  vol. 26(1), pp. 7-20, 2011.  https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1174/021347411794078444
21. M. Motamed-Jahromi & M. H. Kaveh, A theoretical framework for improving hand hygiene compliance: a systematic review: Malaysian Journal of Science, pp. 30-46, 2022.
22. E. O. Oloruntoba, T. B. Folarin, & A. I. Ayede, Hygiene and sanitation risk factors of diarrhoeal disease among under-five children in Ibadan, Nigeria. African health sciences, vol. 14(4), pp. 1001-1011, 2014.
23. C. R. Ejimogu, C.C. Okereke, C. O. A. Amadi, & A. N. Amadi (2019). Assessment of water sanitation and hygiene practices in public primary schools in Owerri municipal area council Imo State, Nigeria. International Journal on Health Safety Environment (IJHSE), vol. 5(5), pp. 444-51, 2019.
24. E. Uzobo, T. F. Ojo, M. A. Ibikunle, O. A. Ijabadeniyi, R. D. Agbana, E. A. Sibiri, & A. G. Okorie, Socio-economic factors associated with shared toilet facilities among off-campus students in the niger delta university, bayelsa state, nigeria. Ibadan Journal of Sociology, vol. 15(1), pp. 32-48, 2024.
25. A. A. Oluwatoyin, M. F. Olanrewaju, A. O. Chidera, A. O. James, A. S. Mattew, & U. S. Felix, Impact of a health education intervention program on personal hygiene knowledge and attitude among female adolescents from selected secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria. Midwifery, vol. 7(4), pp. 222-231, 2024.
26. C. A. Nwajiuba, C. V. Ogunji, R. C. Uwakwe, & E. I. David, Hand washing practices among children in public schools in Imo State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Health Science, vol. 11(14), pp. 15, 2019.
27. D. O. Omole, J. M. Ndambuki, & K. Balogun, Consumption of sachet water in Nigeria, public health and economic perspectives. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, vol. 7(1), pp. 45-51, 2015.
28. A. Abebe, B. G. Debela, G. A. Zenebe, H. E. Hareru, & Z. Ashuro, Mothers' hand washing practices and associated factors among model and non-model households in the rural community of Bibugn district, North West Ethiopia: the context of the Ethiopian health extension package. Heliyon, vol. 9(6), 2023.

29. S. K. Gudi, M. Chhabra, K. Undela, R. Venkataraman, U. V. Mateti, K. K. Tiwari, & S. Nyamagoud,  Knowledge and beliefs towards universal safety precautions during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic among the Indian public: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Drugs & Therapy Perspectives, vol. 36(9), pp. 413-420, 2020.
30. M. C. Duong, H. T. Nguyen, B. T. Duong, & M. T. Vu, Assessment of hand hygiene practices of university students in vietnam amid the COVID-19 pandemic: A brief report. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, vol. 16(5), pp. 1844-1847, 2022
31. Y. Zhang, X. H Xu, T. J. Lee, & Z. X. Li, Assessing the impact of perceptions of hygiene on tourists' attitudinal loyalty to ethnic food. British Food Journal, vol. 124(12), pp. 4847-4867, 2022.
32. C. L. Chuan, J. Penyelidikan. Sample size estimation using Krejcie and Morgan and Cohen statistical power analysis: A comparison. Jurnal Penyelidikan IPBL. vol. 7(1):78-86, 2006.