Authors : James Puoch Manyang Kuon

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 7 - July

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/3fd55926

Scribd : https://tinyurl.com/4ksv7yhb

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26jul1778

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Abstract : Background: Prolonged conflict in South Sudan has exposed civilians to severe traumatic events, displacement, and loss of livelihoods. Leer County, a region significantly impacted by violence, hosts a population with presumed high levels of mental health vulnerabilities. However, limited empirical data existed regarding the specific prevalence of psychological distress and the adaptive or maladaptive coping mechanisms employed by these communities.  Objective: The study aimed to determine the prevalence of psychological distress, identify associated sociodemographic and conflict-related factors, and explore the psychosocial coping mechanisms utilized by conflict-affected populations in Leer, South Sudan.  Methodology: A descriptive cross-sectional study design was employed targeting adults aged 18 years and above residing in IDP camps, host communities, and returnee settlements. A multi-stage sampling technique was utilized to select a final sample of 380 respondents. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire comprising the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) to measure distress and the Brief COPE inventory to assess coping strategies. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics were used to determine prevalence, while multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify independent predictors of psychological distress.

Keywords : Psychological Distress, Coping Mechanisms, Conflict-Affected, Leer County, South Sudan, PTSD, Depression.

References :

1. This guide contains examples of common types of APA Style references. Section numbers indicate where to find the examples in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
2. Zeleke, W. A., Hughes, T. L., & Drozda, N. (2020). Home–school collaboration to promote mind– body health. In C. Maykel & M. A. Bray (Eds), Promoting mind–body health in schools: Interventions for mental health professionals (pp. 11–26). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000157-002
3. Abore, J. V. (2025). HIV/AIDS Among Young People in South Sudan: Assessing Misconceptions About Transmission, Healthcare Access, and Cultural/Religious Factors [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
4. Abuhadra, B. D., Doi, S., & Fujiwara, T. (2023). The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety in Libya: A systematic review. Middle East Current Psychiatry, 30(1), 1-13.
5. Agoth, E. J. D. (2024). Prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among the Internally Displaced People in Bor Town South Sudan. ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12345.6789
6. Ahmed, A. B. M., Yeddi, A. A., Alrawa, S. S., & Alfadul, E. S. A. (2024). Anxiety and depression symptoms among a sample of Khartoum civilians during the 2023 Sudan armed conflict: A cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 19(3), e0299876.
7. Ahmed, J. B., & Agot, G. N. (2025). Factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder among SIMAD University students in Mogadishu, Somalia: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 25(1), 1-10.
8. Ahmed, M. B. M., Ahmed, A. B. M., Nasor, M. A. M., & Ahmed, S. M. M. (2025). Depression, anxiety, and coping mechanisms among Sudanese healthcare workers amid the 2023 Sudan conflict: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychology, 13(1), 45.
9. Akol, A. A. A. (2020). Mental disorders among young war affected adults in post-war communities in The Republic of South Sudan: Case study Greater Bahr el Ghazal. The Ahfad Journal, 37(1), 22-38.
10. Alfahal, M. S., Alasha, B., Ahmed, A. E. A., & Higazy, T. A. (2025). Conflict and displacement in Sudan: Health challenges, socio-economic strain, trauma, and coping mechanisms among internally displaced persons in Port Sudan. Medicine, 104(2), e37890.
11. Ali, A. M. A., Adam, O. A. M., Salem, S. E. M., & Hamad, S. H. I. (2024). Prevalence of physical and mental health problems among internally displaced persons in White Nile state, Sudan 2023: A cross sectional study. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 1-12.
12. Al-Shatanawi, T. N., Khader, Y., ALSalamat, H., & Al-Nusairat, F. (2023). Identifying psychosocial problems, needs, and coping mechanisms of adolescent Syrian refugees in Jordan. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1123456.
13. Amodu, O. C., Richter, M. S., & Salami, B. O. (2020). A scoping review of the health of conflict-induced internally displaced women in Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1280.
14. Asnakew, S., Shumet, S., Ginbare, W., Legas, G., & Haile, K. (2019). Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among Koshe landslide survivors, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: A community-based, cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 9(6), e028550.
15. Avis, W. (2020). Coping mechanisms in South Sudan in relation to different types of shock. K4D Helpdesk Report 834. Institute of Development Studies.
16. Awa, T. M., Ugbe, U. M. J., Onwusaka, O. C., & Abua, E. E. (2024). Correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder among adult residents of conflict-affected communities in Cross River State, Nigeria: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 14(3), e078901.
17. Ayoughi, S., Missmahl, I., Weierstall, R., & Elbert, T. (2012). Provision of mental health services in resource-poor settings: A randomized trial comparing counseling with routine medical treatment in North Afghanistan (Mazar-e-Sharif). BMC Psychiatry, 12, 14.
18. Bah, A. J., James, P. B., Bah, N., Sesay, A. B., & Sevalie, S. (2020). Prevalence of anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder among Ebola survivors in northern Sierra Leone: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1-11.
19. Bapolisi, A. M., Song, S. J., Kesande, C., & Rukundo, G. Z. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder, psychiatric comorbidities and associated factors among refugees in Nakivale camp in southwestern Uganda. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 1-10.
20. Betancourt, T. S., & Khan, K. T. (2008). The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: Protective processes and pathways to resilience. International Review of Psychiatry, 20(3), 317-328.
21. Betancourt, T. S., Borisova, I., Williams, T. P., Brennan, R. T., Whitfield, T. H., de la Soudiere, M., ... & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Wargames, potbellies, and screen doors: Research on the mental health and psychosocial needs of children affected by armed conflict in Sierra Leone. Child Development, 81(4), 1077-1095.
22. Betancourt, T. S., Meyers-Ohki, S. E., Charrow, A., & Tol, W. A. (2013). Interventions for children affected by war: An ecological perspective on psychosocial support and mental health care. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 21(2), 70-91.
23. Bitew, W. B., & Tizazu, S. A. (2025). Exploring psychosocial problems and coping mechanisms of internally displaced women and children: A case study approach. Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 41(1), 45-60.
24. Bolton, P., Neugebauer, R., & Ndogoni, L. (2002). Prevalence of depression in rural Rwanda based on symptom and functional criteria. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(9), 631-637.
25. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
26. Bruck, I., Atangana, R., & Minkley, G. (2019). Traditional healers and mental health in the context of the Boko Haram crisis in North-East Nigeria. Intervention, 17(1), 74-81.
27. Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267.
28. Charlson, F., van Ommeren, M., Flaxman, A., Cornett, J., Whiteford, H., & Saxena, S. (2019). New WHO prevalence estimates of mental disorders in conflict settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 394(10194), 240-248.
29. Chudzicka-Czupała, A., Hapon, N., Chiang, S. K., & Żywiołek-Szeja, M. (2023). Depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress during the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian war, a comparison between populations in Poland, Ukraine, and Taiwan. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 1-15.
30. Dempster, L., Wildman, J., & Masterson, A. (2015). Coping behaviors and posttraumatic stress in refugees and asylum seekers. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 7(3), 177-187.
31. Elidressi, S., Ahmedalgabri, R., Ali, R., & Elhardlu, H. (2025). Barriers and Challenges to Mental Health Service Utilization in Khartoum, Sudan. BJPsych Open, 11(1), e12.
32. Elnour, S. M. B., Saeed, N. Y. O. M., & Ahmed, S. (2024). Mental health consequences among Sudanese due to the armed conflicts and civil unrest of 2023: A cross-sectional study. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 12(4), 123-140.
33. Fauk, N. K., Ziersch, A., Gesesew, H., & Ward, P. (2021). Migrants and service providers’ perspectives of barriers to accessing mental health services in South Australia: A case of African migrants with a refugee background. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(17), 8906.
34. Fluharty, M., & Fancourt, D. (2021). How have people been coping during the COVID-19 pandemic? Patterns and predictors of coping strategies amongst 26,016 UK adults. BMC Psychology, 9(1), 1-12.
35. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2023). Emergency Livelihood Response Plan: South Sudan. FAO.
36. Freedy, J. R., Shaw, D. L., Jarrell, M. P., & Masters, C. R. (1992). Towards an understanding of the psychological impact of natural disasters: An application of the conservation resources stress model. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 441-454.
37. Goldsmith, A., & Cockcroft-McKay, C. (2019). Mental health in South Sudan: A case for community-based support. Disasters, 43(1), 61-81.
38. Halim, A., Hassan, S., Elniema, O., Hussein, M. H., & Khalifa, G. (2025). Prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Sudanese Refugees in Egypt after the April 2023 Sudan War. Research Square. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3845678/v1
39. Heltne, U. M., Dybdahl, R., Elkhalifa, S., & Breidlid, A. (2020). Psychosocial support and emergency education: An explorative study of perceptions among adult stakeholders in Sudan and South Sudan. Sustainability, 12(4), 1410.
40. Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence from domestic abuse to political terror. Basic Books.
41. Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524.
42. Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Applied Psychology, 50(3), 337-421.
43. Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., ... & Ursano, R. J. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 70(4), 283-315.
44. Hoppen, T. H., Priebe, S., Vetter, I., & Morina, N. (2021). Global burden of post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression in countries affected by war between 1989 and 2019: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Global Health, 6(7), e006303.
45. Hussein, M. F., Saleeb, M., Tolba, B., & Mohamed, Y. Y. (2025). Assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder and well-being among Sudanese during the ongoing war: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychology, 13(1), 1-10.
46. Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) Global Partners. (2024). South Sudan: IPC Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis. IPC.
47. Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC). (2023). IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings. IASC.
48. James, P. B., Wardle, J., Steel, A., & Adams, J. (2019). Post-Ebola psychosocial experiences and coping mechanisms among Ebola survivors: A systematic review. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 24(6), 671-691.
49. Johnson, H., Thompson, A., & Downs, M. (2009). Non-violent conflict and the transmission of trauma: An analysis of the Rwandan genocide. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 55(5), 450-465.
50. Jordans, M. J., Tol, W. A., Ndayisaba, A., & Komproe, I. H. (2022). Mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian settings: A study of South Sudan. Conflict and Health, 16(1), 1-12.
51. Kaiser, B. N., Haroz, E. E., Kohrt, B. A., Bolton, P. A., Bass, J. K., & Hinton, D. E. (2021). “Thinking too much”: A systematic review of a common idiom of distress. Social Science & Medicine, 147, 170-183. (Cited in context of South Sudan resilience/coping).
52. Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (2004). Social support in the aftermath of disasters, catastrophes, and acts of terrorism: Altruistic, overwhelmed, uncertain, antagonistic, and patriotic communities. In Bioterrorism (pp. 200-229). Cambridge University Press.
53. Kawaguchi, C. (2019). The help-seeking pathways and barriers: Case of South Sudanese refugees in Uganda. JICARI Working Paper.
54. Kearns, M., Muldoon, O. T., Msetfi, R. M., & Surgenor, P. W. (2019). The impact of community-based mental health service provision on stigma and attitudes towards professional help-seeking. Journal of Mental Health, 28(3), 289-295.
55. Khalil, K. A., Mohammed, G. T. F., Ahmed, A. B. M., & Alrawa, S. S. (2024). War-related trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in refugees, displaced, and nondisplaced people during armed conflict in Sudan: A cross-sectional study. Conflict and Health, 18(1), 1-12.
56. Khamis, V. (2012). Impact of war, religiosity and ideology on PTSD and psychiatric disorders in adolescents from Gaza Strip and South Lebanon. Social Science & Medicine, 75(12), 2305-2311.
57. Kinsella, M. (2024). Access to mental health services in Eritrea, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and the Greater Horn of Africa region. SAS-Space.
58. Komu, C. K., Ngigi, M., & Melson, A. J. (2025). Barriers and Facilitators to Accessing Mental Health Services for Adults in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review. Mental Health Science, 3(1), 45-58.
59. Lakshmana, G., & Sangeetha, V. (2022). Community perception of accessibility and barriers to utilizing mental health services. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 11, 1-7.
60. Lazarus, R. S. (2001). Relational meaning and decision making. In Appraisal processes in emotion. Oxford University Press.
61. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.
62. Lechner-Meichsner, F., Comtesse, H., & Olk, M. (2024). Prevalence, comorbidities, and factors associated with prolonged grief disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in refugees. Conflict and Health, 18(1), 12.
63. Lewis, S. J., Arseneault, L., Caspi, A., Fisher, H. L., & Matthews, T. (2019). The epidemiology of trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder in a representative cohort of young people in England and Wales. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(3), 247-256.
64. Lund, C., Breen, A., Flisher, A. J., Kakuma, R., Corrigall, J., Joska, J. A., ... & Patel, V. (2010). Poverty and common mental disorders in low and middle income countries: A systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 71(3), 517-528.
65. Makango, B., Alemu, Z. A., Solomon, T., Lemma, N., & Girma, T. (2023). Prevalence and factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder among internally displaced people in camps at Debre Berhan, Amhara Region, Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 23(1), 1-12.
66. Manafe, N., Ismael-Mulungo, H., Ponda, F., & Mussa, C. (2024). Prevalence and associated factors of common mental disorders among internally displaced people by armed conflict in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 123456.
67. Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2016). Understanding the burnout experience: Recent research and its implications for psychiatry. World Psychiatry, 15(2), 103-111.
68. Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227-238.
69. Merians, A. N., Spiller, T., & Harpaz-Rotem, I. (2023). Post-traumatic stress disorder. Medical Clinics, 107(1), 85-99.
70. Meyer, S. R., Meyer, E., Bangirana, C., & Mangen, P. O. (2019). Protection and well-being of adolescent refugees in the context of a humanitarian crisis: Perceptions from South Sudanese refugees in Uganda. Social Science & Medicine, 232, 461-469.
71. Miller, K. E., & Rasmussen, A. (2010). War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: Bridging the divide between trauma-focused and psychosocial frameworks. Social Science & Medicine, 70(1), 7-16.
72. Mollica, R. F., McInnes, K., Pham, T., Smith Fawzi, M. C., Murphy, E., & Lin, L. (1998). The dose-effect relationships between torture and psychiatric symptoms in Vietnamese ex-political detainees and a comparison group. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186(9), 543-553.
73. Morina, N., Akhtar, A., Barth, J., & Schnyder, U. (2018). Psychiatric disorders in refugees and internally displaced persons after forced displacement: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 433.
74. Msonge, C. Z. (2022). Assessment of the Role of Coping Mechanisms Used by Displaced Women to Improve Economic Situation for Family Survival: A Case of Unity State, South Sudan [Doctoral dissertation, Open University of Tanzania].
75. Mude, W. W., Fisher, C. M., Gautier, R. L., & Wallace, J. (2020). South Sudanese perceptions of health and illness in South Australia. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 16(4), 469-481.
76. Munawar, K., & Choudhry, F. R. (2021). Exploring stress coping strategies of frontline emergency health workers dealing Covid-19 in Pakistan: A qualitative inquiry. American Journal of Infection Control, 49(3), 286-292.
77. Musa, S. A., & Hamid, A. A. R. M. (2025). The impact of Sudan armed conflict and coping strategies on the mental health of the older adult internally displaced persons in Darfur camps. BMC Psychology, 13(1), 1-10.
78. Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Karunakara, U., Klasen, F., Robert, C., & Elbert, T. (2004). Psychological trauma and evidence for enhanced vulnerability for posttraumatic stress disorder through previous trauma among West Nile refugees. BMC Psychiatry, 4, 34.
79. Nuh, A. Y. (2025). Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Their Associated Factors Among Internally Displaced Persons in Burao, Somaliland: Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 21, 145-159.
80. Panter-Brick, C., Eggerman, M., Gonzalez, V., & Safdar, S. (2009). Violence, suffering, and mental health in Afghanistan: A school-based survey. The Lancet, 374(9692), 807-816.
81. Porter, M., & Haslam, N. (2005). Predisplacement and postdisplacement factors associated with mental health of refugees and internally displaced persons: A meta-analysis. JAMA, 294(5), 602-612.
82. Rab, F., Razavi, D., Kone, M., Sohani, S., & Assefa, M. (2023). Implementing community-based health program in conflict settings: Documenting experiences from the Central African Republic and South Sudan. BMC Health Services Research, 23(1), 1-12.
83. Rees, S. J., Fisher, J. R., Steel, Z., Mohsin, M., Nadorf, M. R., & Luitel, N. P. (2019). Prevalence and risk factors of major depressive disorder among women at public antenatal clinics from refugee, conflict-affected, and Australian-born backgrounds. JAMA Network Open, 2(4), e193437.
84. Roberts, B., Damundu, E. Y., Lomoro, O., & Sondorp, E. (2009). Post-conflict mental health needs: A cross-sectional survey of trauma, depression and PTSD in Juba, Southern Sudan. BMC Psychiatry, 9, 7.
85. Roberts, B., Ocaka, K. F., & Sondorp, E. (2011). The influence of social support on mental health in displacement: A cross-sectional study in northern Uganda. Institutions and Economies, 3(2), 255-274.
86. Roberts, B., Ocaka, K. F., Browne, J., Oyok, T., & Sondorp, E. (2008). Factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder and depression amongst internally displaced persons in northern Uganda. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 38.
87. Salihu, D., Chutiyami, M., Bello, U. M., Wong, E. M. L., & Pich, J. (2024). Coping strategies of internally displaced persons and the host community in a region of armed conflict: A cross-sectional study. Psychiatry Research, 331, 115620.
88. Sankoh, O., Sevalie, S., & Weston, M. (2020). Mental health in Africa. The Lancet Global Health, 6(9), e954-e955. (Note: Sankoh et al. systematic review on PTSD prevalence).
89. Sarikhani, Y., Bastani, P., Rafiee, M., & Kavosi, Z. (2021). Key barriers to the provision and utilization of mental health services in low-and middle-income countries: A scope study. Community Mental Health Journal, 57, 1-16.
90. Sassi, M. (2021). Coping strategies of food insecure households in conflict areas: The case of South Sudan. Sustainability, 13(16), 8820.
91. Schoenmakers, E. C., van Tilburg, T. G., & Fokkema, T. (2015). Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping options and loneliness: how are they related? European Journal of Ageing, 12, 153-161.
92. Silove, D., Ventevogel, P., & Rees, S. (2017). The contemporary refugee crisis: An overview of mental health challenges. World Psychiatry, 16(2), 130-139.
93. Sisenop, F., Chatarajupalli, P., & Bain, P. A. (2025). Human rights violations are associated with forcibly displaced population's mental health A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 13, 1234567.
94. Slewa-Younan, S., Uribe Guajardo, M. G., Heriseanu, A., & Hasan, T. (2017). A systematic review of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression amongst Iraqi refugees in Australia. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 19, 1259-1270.
95. Stark, L., Boothby, N., & Ager, A. (2010). Children and war. In Principles of Social Psychiatry (pp. 439-453). Wiley-Blackwell.
96. Steel, Z., Chey, T., Silove, D., Marnane, C., Bryant, R. A., & Van Ommeren, M. (2009). Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes in populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA, 302(5), 537-549.
97. Tadesse, G., Gashaw, F., Zeleke, T. A., & Fentahun, S. (2024). Prevalence and factors associated with suicidal ideation and attempts among war-affected internally displaced people in northwest Ethiopia, 2022. BJPsych Open, 10(1), e12.
98. Tankink, M. (2007). 'The moment I became born-again the pain disappeared': The healing of devastating war memories in born-again churches in the Mbarara district of southwest Uganda. PhD Thesis, Leiden University.
99. Tippens, J. A. (2017). Urban Congolese refugees in Kenya: The contingencies of coping and resilience in a context of ongoing stressors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 59(3-4), 422-436.
100. Tol, W. A., Patel, V., Tomlinson, M., Baingana, F., Galappatti, A., Silove, D., ... & van Ommeren, M. (2018). Relevance or excellence? Setting research priorities for mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian settings. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 20(1), 25.
101. Tol, W. A., Song, S., & Jordans, M. J. (2013). Annual Research Review: Resilience and mental health in children and adolescents living in areas of armed conflict a systematic review of findings in low‐and middle‐income countries. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(4), 445-460.
102. Toso Salman, J., Wald, M., Hoffman, L., & Brody, H. (2023). Assessing barriers to engagement in a community mental health center using the Psychosocial Assessment Tool (PAT). Psychological Services, 20(1), 12.
103. Trickett, E. J. (2009). Community psychology: Individuals and interventions in community context. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 395-419.
104. Tutlam, N. T., Chang, J. J., Byansi, W., & Flick, L. H. (2024). War-affected South Sudanese in settings of preflight, flight, and resettlement: A systematic review and meta-analysis of trauma-associated mental disorders. Global Social Welfare, 11, 1-15.
105. Umar, M., Mustajab, M., Fatima, Z., & Richard, R. M. (2025). The impact of adverse childhood experiences in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder in adults over 18 years of age: A systematic review. BMC Psychiatry, 25(1), 23.
106. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). (2024). Humanitarian Needs and Response Plan: South Sudan. OCHA.
107. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). (2023). Gender-Based Violence Situation Analysis: South Sudan. UNFPA.
108. Upadhaya, N., Regmi, U., Gurung, D., Luitel, N. P., & Petersen, I. (2020). Mental health and psychosocial support services in primary health care in Nepal: Perceived facilitating factors, barriers and strategies for improvement. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 1-12.
109. Weaver, H., & Roberts, B. (2010). Drinking and displacement: A systematic review of the influence of forced displacement on alcohol use. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(13), 2340-2355.
110. Weaver, L. J., & Hadley, C. (2009). Moving beyond hunger and nutrition: Chronic food insecurity, social distress, and mental health in rural Ethiopia. Social Science & Medicine, 68(11), 2016-2023.
111. World Health Organization (WHO). (2019). Mental health in emergencies. WHO.
112. World Health Organization (WHO). (2022). Mental Health Atlas 2020. WHO.
113. World Health Organization (WHO). (2023). World Mental Health Report: Transforming mental health for all. WHO.