Authors : M. S. Dixit; S. P. Yawale

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 10 - October

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/mw5znp45

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26Oct905

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Abstract : Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) is one of the a promising class of third-generation photovoltaic devices, because of its low production costs, easy methods of fabrication, and transparency. Among the critical components of DSSCs, the counter electrode (CE) plays a cruicial role in facilitating the reduction of the redox electrolyte and completing the electrical circuit. Traditionally, platinum (Pt) has been the material of choice for CEs due to its superior electrocatalytic activity and conductivity. However, its high cost, scarcity, and poor long-term stability in corrosive electrolytes have driven the search for alternative materials. This review presents a comprehensive overview of recent advances in counter electrode materials for DSSCs, focusing on Pt-free alternatives such as carbon-based materials, conducting polymers, transition metal compounds, 2D materials (e.g., MXenes), and metal-organic framework (MOF)-derived structures. Emphasis is placed on their electrochemical performance, structural morphology, fabrication techniques, and compatibility with various electrolytes. Comparative performance analysis is provided to highlight the efficiency and stability trade-offs among different CE materials. Despite substantial progress, challenges such as scalability, long-term operational stability, and integration into flexible/wearable systems remain. Future research is likely to benefit from sustainable synthesis strategies, nano structuring techniques, and artificial intelligence-guided material discovery. This review aims to serve as a roadmap for researchers seeking cost-effective and high-performance CE materials for next-generation DSSCs.

Keywords : Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs), Counter Electrode, Electrocatalyst, Pt-Free Materials, Conductivity, Charge Transfer, Nanomaterials.

References :

1. O’Regan B, Grätzel M. A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 1991;353:737–40. https://doi.org/10.1038/353737a0.
2. Grätzel M. Dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews 2003;4:145–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-5567(03)00026-1.
3. Chiba Y, Islam A, Watanabe Y, Komiya R, Koide N, Han L. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells with Conversion Efficiency of 11.1%. Jjap 2006;45:L638. https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.45.L638.
4. Ahmed U, Alizadeh M, Rahim NA, Shahabuddin S, Ahmed MS, Pandey AK. A comprehensive review on counter electrodes for dye sensitized solar cells: A special focus on Pt-TCO free counter electrodes. Solar Energy 2018;174:1097–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.10.010.
5. Lee Y-L, Chen C-L, Chong L-W, Chen C-H, Liu Y-F, Chi C-F. A platinum counter electrode with high electrochemical activity and high transparency for dye-sensitized solar cells. Electrochemistry Communications 2010;12:1662–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2010.09.022.
6. Murakami TN, Grätzel M. Counter electrodes for DSC: Application of functional materials as catalysts. Inorganica Chimica Acta 2008;361:572–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ica.2007.09.025.
7. Ren H, Shao H, Zhang L, Guo D, Jin Q, Yu R, et al. A New Graphdiyne Nanosheet/Pt Nanoparticle-Based Counter Electrode Material with Enhanced Catalytic Activity for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Advanced Energy Materials 2015;5:1500296. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201500296.
8. Rahman S, Haleem A, Siddiq M, Hussain MK, Qamar S, Hameed S, et al. Research on dye sensitized solar cells: recent advancement toward the various constituents of dye sensitized solar cells for efficiency enhancement and future prospects. RSC Adv 2023;13:19508–29. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA00903C.
9. Napitupulu GM, Sofyan N, Dhaneswara D, Yuwono AH. Platinum-free counter electrodes for DSSCs: Emerging materials and synthesis strategies-a review. Next Materials 2026;10:101586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxmate.2026.101586.
10. Hagfeldt A, Boschloo G, Sun L, Kloo L, Pettersson H. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Chemical Reviews 2010;110:6595–663. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr900356p.
11. Kareem AK, Mutar AA, Kiran KS, Asiri M, Alabedi H, Shankhyan A, et al. A synergistic approach to high-efficiency DSSCs: MXene/NiCo₂S₄ as a superior counter electrode. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 2025;1036:182097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.182097.
12. Wu J, Lan Z, Lin J, Huang M, Huang Y, Fan L, et al. Counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells. Chem Soc Rev 2017;46:5975–6023. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6CS00752J.
13. Han L, Koide N, Chiba Y, Islam A, Mitate T. Modeling of an equivalent circuit for dye-sensitized solar cells: improvement of efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells by reducing internal resistance. Comptes Rendus Chimie 2005;9:645–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crci.2005.02.046.
14. Mariotti N, Bonomo M, Fagiolari L, Barbero N, Gerbaldi C, Bella F, et al. Recent advances in eco-friendly and cost-effective materials towards sustainable dye-sensitized solar cells. Green Chemistry 2020;22:7168–218. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0gc01148g.
15. Papageorgiou N. Counter-electrode function in nanocrystalline photoelectrochemical cell configurations. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 2004;248:1421–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2004.03.028.
16. Kloke A, von Stetten F, Zengerle R, Kerzenmacher S. Strategies for the Fabrication of Porous Platinum Electrodes. Advanced Materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla) 2011;23:4976–5008. https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.201202206.
17. Roy-Mayhew JD, Aksay IA. Graphene Materials and Their Use in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Chemical Reviews 2014;114:6323–48. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr400412a.
18. Kavan L, Krysova H, Janda P, Tarabkova H, Saygili Y, Freitag M, et al. Novel highly active Pt/graphene catalyst for cathodes of Cu(II/I)-mediated dye-sensitized solar cells. Electrochimica Acta 2017;251:167–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.08.080.
19. Cong J, Yang X, Kloo L, Sun L. Iodine/iodide-free redox shuttles for liquid electrolyte-based dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy Environ Sci 2012;5:9180–94. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee22095d.
20. Wang H, Hu YH. Graphene as a counter electrode material for dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy Environ Sci 2012;5:8182. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee21905k.
21. Thomas S, Deepak TG, Anjusree GS, Arun TA, Nair SV, Nair AS. A review on counter electrode materials in dye-sensitized solar cells. J Mater Chem A 2014;2:4474–90. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3TA13374E.
22. Wu J, Li Q, Fan L, Lan Z, Li P, Lin J, et al. High-performance polypyrrole nanoparticles counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Power Sources 2008;181:172–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.03.029.
23. Ding Y, Sheng H, Gong B, Tang P, Pan G, Zeng Y, et al. Polyaniline/reduced graphene oxide nanosheets on TiO2 nanotube arrays as a high-performance supercapacitor electrode: Understanding the origin of high rate capability. Electrochimica Acta 2021;368:137615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.137615.
24. Kim S-S, Lee J-W, Yun J-M, Na S-I. 2-Dimensional MoS2 nanosheets as transparent and highly electrocatalytic counter electrode in dye-sensitized solar cells: Effect of thermal treatments. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 2015;29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2015.02.026.
25. Mei L, Yang T, Xu C, Zhang M, Chen L, Li Q, et al. Hierarchical mushroom-like CoNi2S4 arrays as a novel electrode material for supercapacitors. Nano Energy 2014;3:36–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2013.10.004.
26. Su H, Wang T, Zhang S, Song J, Mao C, Niu H, et al. Facile synthesis of polyaniline/TiO2/graphene oxide composite for high performance supercapacitors. Solid State Sciences 2012;14:677–81. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2012.03.020.
27. Hu Z, Li Y, Li A, Wang H-H, Wang X-F. Dye-sensitized solar cells based on highly catalytic CNTs/Ti3C2Tx MXenes composite counter electrode. RSC Advances 2023;13:34808–16. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ra06814e.
28. Zhang C (John), Pinilla S, McEvoy N, Cullen C, Anasori B, Long E, et al. Oxidation Stability of Colloidal 2D Titanium Carbides (MXenes). Chemistry of Materials 2017;29. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00745.
29. Juang SS-Y, Lin P-Y, Lin Y-C, Chen Y-S, Shen P-S, Guo Y-L, et al. Energy Harvesting Under Dim-Light Condition With Dye-Sensitized and Perovskite Solar Cells. Front Chem 2019;7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2019.00209.
30. Ye X, Dong S, Jin X, Wei J, Wang L, Zhang Y. Enhancement in the Electrochemical Performance of Strontium (Sr)-Doped LaMnO3 as Supercapacitor Materials. Coatings 2022;12:1739. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12111739.
31. Ghozza MH, Yahia IS, Hussien MSA. Structure, magnetic, and photocatalysis of La0.7Sr0.3MO3 (M = Mn, Co, and Fe) perovskite nanoparticles: Novel photocatalytic materials. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2023;30:61106–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26411-9.
32. Hsu S-H, Li C-T, Chien H-T, Salunkhe RR, Suzuki N, Yamauchi Y, et al. Platinum-Free Counter Electrode Comprised of Metal-Organic-Framework (MOF)-Derived Cobalt Sulfide Nanoparticles for Efficient Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs). Sci Rep 2014;4:6983. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep06983.
33. Cheng C-E, Lin C-Y, Shan C-H, Tsai S-Y, Lin K-W, Chang C-S, et al. Platinum-graphene counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Applied Physics 2013;114:014503. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4812498.
34. Counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells | Chemical Society Reviews | The Royal Society of Chemistry n.d. https://pubs.rsc.org/cs/article/46/19/5975/520264/Counter-electrodes-in-dye-sensitized-solar-cells (accessed October 9, 2026).
35. Wei W, Wang H, Hu YH. A review on PEDOT-based counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. International Journal of Energy Research 2014;38:1099–111. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3178.
36. Zhu W, Wang Z, Wu G, Tao X, Bu F, Luo J. MOF/MXene Composites for Advanced Electrochemical Energy Storage: Transitioning From Laboratory Research to Practical Application. Rare Metals 2026;45:e70440. https://doi.org/10.1002/rar2.70440.
37. Subalakshmi K, Gupta A, Lee Y, Lee S. MXene/NiCo2S4 2D/3D Heterostructure as a High-Performance Pt-Free Counter Electrode for DSSCs. Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices 2025;10:100970. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2025.100970.
38. Nechiyil D, Vinayan BP, Ramaprabhu S. Tri-iodide reduction activity of ultra-small size PtFe nanoparticles supported nitrogen-doped graphene as counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cell. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 2017;488:309–16. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2016.11.011.
39. Wang J, Zhao R, Yang M, Liu Z, Liu Z. Inverse relationship between carrier mobility and bandgap in graphene. J Chem Phys 2013;138:084701. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4792142.
40. Zhuang J, Zhang M, Li B, Zhu H, Zhao X, Zheng Q, et al. Bimetallic sulfide ZnMoS4-x/C nanocoral synthesized through glucose-assisted supercritical water system and its high performance for lithium-ion batteries. Electrochimica Acta 2022;411:140075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140075.
41. (PDF) Defect Engineering in Carbon Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage and Catalytic Conversion n.d. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366990670_Defect_Engineering_in_Carbon_Materials_for_Electrochemical_Energy_Storage_and_Catalytic_Conversion (accessed October 13, 2026).
42. Bhatt MD, Kim H, Kim G. Various defects in graphene: a review. RSC Adv n.d.;12:21520–47. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ra01436j.
43. Plant-Derived Coating Unlocks MXene’s Potential for Cleaning. BIOENGINEERORG 2026. https://bioengineer.org/plant-derived-coating-unlocks-mxenes-potential-for-cleaning-drug-laden-wastewater/ (accessed October 13, 2026).
44. Papageorgiou N, Maier WF, Grätzel M. An Iodine/Triiodide Reduction Electrocatalyst for Aqueous and Organic Media. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 1997;144:876. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1837502.
45. Hsu C-W, Ho S-T, Wu K-L, Chi Y, Liu S-H, Chou P-T. Ru(ii) sensitizers with a tridentate heterocyclic cyclometalate for dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy Environ Sci 2012;5:7549–54. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee21091f.
46. Yue G, Wu P, Xiao Y, Lin J, Huang M, Fan L-Q, et al. A dye-sensitized solar cell based on PEDOT:PSS counter electrode. Chinese Science Bulletin 2013;58:559–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-012-5352-3.
47. Zhang S, Wang W, Niu X, Lei X, Wang B, Cai W, et al. Nickel sulfides for urea oxidation: mechanistic understanding, design strategies and advanced characterization. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2026;280:157914. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2026.157914.
48. Lee Y, Kwon Y, Cho Y, Ahn K-S, Han YS. Novel heterologous binary redox mediator based on an ionic liquid and cobalt complex for efficient organic-solvent-free dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 2022;115:263–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2022.08.007.
49. Nie F, Zhao H, Liu S, Li Y, Zhang H, Wu M, et al. Laminated 2D-Ti3C2-MXenes as high-performance counter electrode for triiodide reduction in dye-sensitized solar cells. Diamond and Related Materials 2024;141:110586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diamond.2023.110586.
50. Aravinthkumar K, Hsieh S, Santhana Krishna Kumar A, Raja Mohan C. Metal‐organic framework templated CoNi2S4 anchored MWCNT: A multifunctional application for photocatalysis, water splitting, and dye-sensitized solar cells. Materials Today Sustainability 2025;31:101174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2025.101174.
51. Hongyu J, Song X, Ren S, Shi Y, An Y, Yang Y, et al. ZIF-67 Derived Nanostructures of Co/CoO and Co@N-doped Graphitic Carbon as Counter Electrode for Highly Efficient Dye-sensitized Solar Cells. Electrochimica Acta 2016;213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.129.
52. Wang X, Xie Y, Bateer B, Pan K, Zhang X, Wu J, et al. CoSe2/N-Doped Carbon Hybrid Derived form ZIF-67 as High-Efficiency Counter Electrode for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 2018;7. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b05995.
53. Kouhnavard M, Ahmad Ludin N, Vazifehkhah Ghaffari B, Sopian K, Abdul Karim N, Miyake M. An Efficient Metal-Free Hydrophilic Carbon as a Counter Electrode for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. International Journal of Photoenergy 2016;2016:5186762. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5186762.
54. Huang A, Pien W-C, Kuo H-P. Preparation of the Working Electrode of Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Using Screen Printing with Alkyd Resins. Energy Procedia 2014;61:1528–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.12.162.
55. Kay A, Graetzel M. Artificial photosynthesis. 1. Photosensitization of titania solar cells with chlorophyll derivatives and related natural porphyrins. ACS Publications 2002. https://doi.org/10.1021/j100125a029.
56. Ding M, Qin Y, Ji W, Zhang Y, Zhao G. A Review of Strategies to Improve the Electrocatalytic Performance of Tungsten Oxide Nanostructures for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction. Nanomaterials 2025;15:1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15151163.
57. Liu Y, Bi C-C, Bao Q-X, Weerasooriya R, Chen X. The morphology modulation of graphene to produce wrinkles and folds for effective electrochemical determination of Hg(II). Electroanalysis 2023;35:e202200493. https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.202200493.
58. Bach-Toledo L, Hryniewicz B, Marchesi L, Dall’Antonia L, Vidotti M, Wolfart F. Conducting polymers and composites nanowires for energy devices: A brief review. Materials Science for Energy Technologies 2019;3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2019.09.006.
59. Wei D. Dye Sensitized Solar Cells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010;11:1103–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms11031103.
60. Lee WJ, Ramasamy E, Lee DY, Song JS. Dye-sensitized solar cells: Scale up and current–voltage characterization. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2007;91:1676–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2007.05.022.
61. Khir H, Pandey AK, Saidur R, Shakeel Ahmad M, Abd Rahim N, Dewika M, et al. Recent advancements and challenges in flexible low temperature dye sensitised solar cells. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 2022;53:102745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102745.
62. Chen C, Asiam FK, Kaliamurthy AK, Rahman MdM, Sadiq M, Lee J-J. PEDOT-based counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells: rigid, flexible and indoor light applications. Materials Chemistry Frontiers 2024;8:3413–45. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4qm00347k.
63. Yun S, Freitas JN, Nogueira AF, Wang Y, Ahmad S, Wang Z-S. Dye-sensitized solar cells employing polymers. Progress in Polymer Science 2016;59:1–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.10.004.
64. Kharboot LH, Fadil NA, Bakar TAA, Najib ASM, Nordin NH, Ghazali H. A Review of Transition Metal Sulfides as Counter Electrodes for Dye-Sensitized and Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells. Materials 2023;16:2881. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16072881.
65. (PDF) Dye-sensitized solar cells with NiS counter electrodes electrodeposited by a potential reversal technique. ResearchGate n.d. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0EE00791A.
66. Wang Y, Li S, Bai Y, Chen Z, Jiang Q, Li T, et al. Dye-sensitized solar cells based on low cost carbon-coated tungsten disulphide counter electrodes. Electrochimica Acta 2013;114:30–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2013.09.141.
67. Sedira S, Mendaci B. Hydrothermal synthesis of spherical carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) for supercapacitor electrodes uses. Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy 2019;9:1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-019-0161-0.
68. Guo X, Lu G, Chen J. Graphene-Based Materials for Photoanodes in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Front Energy Res 2015;3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2015.00050.
69. Butler KT, Davies DW, Cartwright H, Isayev O, Walsh A. Machine learning for molecular and materials science. Nature 2018;559:547–55. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0337-2.
70. Zou S, Luo L, Wang G, Shen H, Bai H, Wen G, et al. Machine learning-driven high-throughput screening of electrocatalysts and electrolytes for electrochemical surfaces and interfaces. Chemical Communications 2026;62:11295–317. https://doi.org/10.1039/D6CC01112H.