Authors :
Teresia W. Mburu; Dr. Daniel Kitonga; Dr. Phyllis Muraya
Volume/Issue :
Volume 10 - 2025, Issue 9 - September
Google Scholar :
https://tinyurl.com/48rbtuvd
Scribd :
https://tinyurl.com/2cruff44
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25sep1047
Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.
Note : Google Scholar may take 30 to 40 days to display the article.
Abstract :
Parents play a crucial role in shaping their children's growth and future, as their behavior and interactions during
upbringing significantly influence who their children become. Quantitative method and a correlational survey design were
used to investigate the relationship between the perceived parenting styles and spirituality among the consecrated women
in Kiambu County, Kenya. The study used four objectives on the consecrated women first examined the perceived parenting
styles, second investigated the levels of spirituality, third established the relationship between the perceived parenting styles
and levels of spirituality and lastly the relationship between demographic characteristics and level of spirituality of
consecrated women. The study was supported by Baumrind’s Parenting Styles theory and Spiritual Development Theory.
To determine the sample size the researcher used proportionate stratified random sampling and simple random techniques.
The target population was 547 with a sample size of 248 consecrated women in Kiambu County. Parenting Style Inventory
II (PSI-II) and Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS) was employed in the study to gather information from the participants.
The findings showed that authoritarian was the dominant parenting style with 78.2% followed by authoritative parenting
of 55.5% and lastly permissive with highest of 43.7%. Level of spirituality showed low spirituality of 62.6% (149), moderate
spirituality of 37.0% (88) and high of 0.4% (1). Relationship between parenting styles and spirituality showed permissive
and authoritative parenting experienced negative correlations r (238) = –.24, p < .001 and r (238) = –.21, p = .001 respectively
while authoritarian parenting had no significant correlation with spirituality showing r (238) = –.03, p = .67. Further
demographic characteristics showed no significant associations: age, r (238) = –.06, p = .39; education, r (238) = –.10, p = .14.
The study recommended having workshop on parenting to help parent understand influence parenting styles have to
children as they grow up facilitated by psychologists or consecrated women.
Keywords :
Parenting Styles, Spirituality, Consecrated Women.
References :
- Achieng, L. A., Momanyi, M., & Okpalaenwe, E. N. (2018). Affluent Parents’ Behaviour and Adolescents’ Levels of Assertiveness in Karen Zone, Nairobi County, Kenya. Cradle of Knowledge: African Journal of Educational and Social Science Research (The), 6(3), 24-31.
- Achievement in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 475–493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24761245
- Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (2015). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Psychology press.
- Asma, M., Ahmed, J., Batool, R., Awais, N., Fatima, A., & Cheema, D. U. (2022). Perceived Parenting Styles, Perceived Academic Success. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(11), 2246-2256.
- Bach, M., Koebe, J., & Peter, F. (2019). Long run effects of universal childcare on personality traits (No. 1815). DIW Discussion Papers.
- Bastaits, K., Ponnet, K., Van Peer, C., & Mortelmans, D. (2015). The parenting styles of divorced fathers and their predictors. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 32(5), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407514541070
- Barrow, B. H., Dollahite, D. C., & Marks, L. D. (2020, January 13). How Parents Balance Desire for Religious Continuity With Honoring Children’s Religious Agency. Psychology of Religion andSpirituality. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/rel0000307
- Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of Authoritative Parental Control on Child Behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887-907.
- Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95.
- Ben Janse (2024). Fowler's stages of faith Development. https://www.toolshero.com
- Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Cultural approaches to parenting. Parenting: Science and Practice, 12(2-3), 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.683359
- Boyatzis, C. J. (2016). Religious and spiritual development in childhood and adolescence. In L. Miller (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (pp. 151–160). Oxford University Press.
- Breuninger (2019) Religious/spiritual struggles and perceived parenting style in a religious college-aged sample, Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 22:5, 500-516, DOI:10.1080/13674676.2019.1629402 ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬
- Bryant, Kenneth. Parenting styles and spiritual maturity., dissertation, December 2001; Denton, Texas. (https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3062/: accessed February 10, 2025), University of North Texas Libraries, UNT Digital Library, https://digital.library.unt.edu; .
- Cahyono, S., & Julom, A. M. (2015). Perceived parental bonding, emotional intelligence (EQ), and spiritual well-being of seminarians in the Diocese of Surabaya. Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, 3(2), 193. Retrieved from http://www.ajouronline.com
- CALAFAT, A. et al. Which parenting style is more protective against adolescent substance use? Evidence within the European context. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, [s. l.], v. 138, p. 185–192, 2014. DOI 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.02.705. Disponível em: https://research-ebsco-com.tangaza.remotexs.co/linkprocessor/plink?id=78baed98-0e19-3a1a-9245-c9b3268f97de. Acesso em: 10 jan. 2025.
- Calafat, A., García, F., Juan, M., Becoña, E., & Fernández-Hermida, J. R. (2014). Which parenting style is more protective against adolescent substance use? Evidence within the European context. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 138, 185–192.
- Collazos Ugarte, C., Crea, G., & Swaminathan, J. J. (2024). Unveiling the Inner World: Exploring Emotional Intelligence, Faith, and Time Perspective among Italian Nuns. Religions, 15(7), 796.
- Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65(4), 1111–1119.
- Cherniak, I., Granqvist, P., & Hagekull, B. (2024). Attachment theory and religion: Understanding the compensation pathway. Current Opinion in Psychology, 40, 126–130.
- Dakers, J., & Guse, T. (2020). Can dimensions of parenting style contribute to self-compassion among South African adolescents? Journal of Family Studies, 28(4), 1566–1579. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2020.1852951
- Doody, O., & Bailey, M. E. (2016). Setting a research question, aim and objective. Nurse Researcher, 23(4), 19–23.
- Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., Grubbs, J. B., & Yali, A. M. (2013). The religious and spiritual struggles scale: Development and initial validation. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6(3), 208–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036465
- Fowler, J. W. (1981). Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. Harper & Row.
- Francis, A., Pai, M. S., & Badagabettu, S. (2021). Psychological well-being and perceived parenting style among adolescents. Comprehensive child and adolescent nursing, 44(2), 134-143.
- Freund, A., Fuchshuber, J., Silani, G., & Unterrainer, H. F. (2024). The relationship between attachment, primary emotions and positive/negative spirituality: a path analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1375850.
- Gatere, B. M., Gitonga, C., & Bariu, R. (2022). Perceived Parenting Leadership Styles on the Development of Deviant Behaviour by Adolescents in Boarding Schools in Kiambu County, Kenya. African Multidisciplinary Journal of Research, 107-127.
- Goodman, M. L., Raimer-Goodman, L., Gitari, S., & Seidel, S. (2021). Spirituality as compensation for low-quality social environments in childhood among young Kenyan men. The Journal of Social Psychology, 162(3), 371–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2021.1909523
- Granqvist, P., & Hagekull, B. (2024). God as an attachment figure: The role of early relationships in religious development. Attachment & Human Development, 26(1), 112-130.
- Granqvist, P., & Hagekull, B. (2019). Attachment and religious and spiritual development in childhood and adolescence. In L. J. Miller (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (2nd ed., pp. 273–286). Oxford University Press.
- Greenwald, Y., Mikulincer, M., Granqvist, P., & Shaver, P. R. (2021). Apostasy and conversion: Attachment orientations and individual differences in the process of religious change. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 13(4), 425.
- Grusec, J. E., & Davidov, M. (2010). Integrating different perspectives on socialization theory and research: A domain-specific approach. Child Development, 81(3), 687–709.
- Hardy, S. A., Dollahite, D. C., Johnson, N., & Christensen, K. J. (2019). Adolescent religious/spiritual development: A relational developmental systems perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29(1), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12482
- Hiebert, J., Cai, J., Hwang, S., Morris, A. K., & Hohensee, C. (2022). Significance of a Study: Revisiting the “So What” Question. In Doing Research: A New Researcher’s Guide. Research in Mathematics Education. (pp. 105–124). Springer, Cham.
- Johari Talib, Z. M., & Mamat, M. (2011). Effects of parenting style on children development. World Journal of Social Sciences, 1(2), 14-35.
- Keller, N., Topolewski, K., Hart, C., & Granqvist, P. (2023). Primary emotions and spiritual struggles: The mediating role of attachment insecurity. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 51(2), 100-115.
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2019). 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Reports. https://www.knbs.or.ke/?wpdmpro=2019-kenya-population-and-housing-census-volume-i-population-by-county-and-sub-county
- Kim-Spoon, J., Longo, G. S., & McCullough, M. E. (2018). Parent-adolescent relationship quality as a moderator of links between religiousness and adolescent substance use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(2), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0715-1
- Kor, A., Pirutinsky, S., Mikulincer, M., Shoshani, A., & Miller, L. (2019). A longitudinal study of spirituality, character strengths, subjective well-being, and prosociality in middle school adolescents. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 377.
- Levin, J. (2013). Religion and physical health among older Israeli Jews: Findings from the SHARE-Israel Study. Israel Journal of Health Policy Research, 2(1), 10.
- Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the Context of the Family: Parent–Child Interaction. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Socialization, Personality, and Social Development (pp. 1-101). New York: Wiley.
- Malinakova, K., Kopcakova, J., Kolarcik, P., Madarasova Geckova, A., Solcova, I. P., Husek, V., ... & Tavel, P. (2017). The Spiritual Well-Being Scale: Psychometric Evaluation of the Shortened Version in Czech Adolescents. Journal of Religion and Health, 56(2), 697–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0318-4
- Margulies, H. (2017). On Three Types of Spiritualities and on the Ways of Spiritual Errors. In: Will and Grace. Transgressions: Cultural Studies and Education. SensePublishers, Rotterdam. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6351-197-1_37
- Mohamed, N. H., Hamzah, S. R. A., Ismail, I. A., & Samah, B. A. (2018). Youth religiosity as a mediator of the relationship between psychosocial factors and positive youth development.
- Moosa, J., & Ali, N. M. (2011). The study relationship between parenting styles and spiritual intelligence. Journal of life Science and Biomedicine, 1(1), 24-27.
- Mugenda, A. G., & Mugenda, O. M. (2013). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Nairobi: ACTS Press.
- Mujidin, Mujidin, and Ariesta Muthmainnah. "Religiosity and Authoritative Parenting Style: Prediction of A Positive Relationship with the Meaningfulness of Student Life." Journal of Educational, Health and Community Psychology, vol. 11, no. 2, 7 Jun. 2022, pp. 299-317, doi:10.12928/jehcp.v11i2.23547.
- Muthmainnah, A. (2022). Are Religiosity and Authoritative Parenting Style predict Life Meaningfulness of College Students?. Journal of Educational, Health & Community Psychology (JEHCP), 11(2).
- M.Pinquart, M. (2016). Associations of Parenting Styles and Dimensions with Academic
- Mutuku, Lucia, Egunjobi Joyzy Pius, (2023). Influence of parenting styles on image of God among selected students of Teresa Nuzzo Girls Secondary School, Kiambu County, Kenya. DOI - 10.13140/RG.2.2.21540.45447
- Najam, N., & Batool, S. (2012). Relationship between Perceived Parenting Style, Perceived Parental Acceptance-Rejection (PAR) and Perception of God among Young Adults. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 22(1).
- Newman, J., Gozu, H., Guan, S., Lee, J. E., Li, X., & Sasaki, Y. (2015).Relationship between Maternal Parenting Style and High School Achievement and Self-Esteem in China, Turkey and U.S.A. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 46(2), 265–288. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43613115
- Nijhof, K. S., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2007). Parenting styles, coping strategies, and the expression of homesickness. Journal of Adolescence, 30(5), 709–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.11.009
- Oburu, P. (2024). Cultural values, parenting and child adjustment in Kenya. International Journal of Psychology.
- Okinda, P. M. (2018). The State of Marriage in Kenya. Nairobi: Nation Media Group
- Paul D. Williams, William M. Hunter, Elizabeth Seyer, Stephen Sammut & Matthew Research Gate (2023). Spirituality and Organizational Commitment among Catholic Religious Men and Women Working in Rural Areas: A Case of Lodwar Diocese in Turkana County Kenya.
- Pinquart, M. (2017). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(6), 1486–1496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0681-2
- Paloutzian, R. F., & Ellison, C. W. (1982). Spiritual well-being scale: Manual. Life Advance.
- Richey, M., Bilodeau, C., & Martin, M. (2020). Women, identity development and spirituality in the Anglican Church of Canada: A qualitative study. Journal of spirituality in mental health, 22(4), 330-354.
- Roman, N. V., Makwakwa, T., & Lacante, M. (2016). Perceptions of parenting styles in South Africa: The effects of gender and ethnicity. Cogent Psychology, 3(1), 1153231.
- Rose Ann Karesh, 2023. James Fowler and spiritual development: Stages of faith. https://owlcation.com/humanities.
- Ross Edwards (2022). Stages of faith: Learn James Fowler's 7 stages.
- Rudy, D., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Authoritarian parenting in individualist and collectivist groups: Associations with maternal emotion and cognition and children's self-esteem. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(1), 68–78.
- Sahaya G. Selvam (2017). Empirical Research: A Study Guide. Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa.
- Skinner, E., Godwin, J., & Gonzalez, T. (2021). Parenting and motivation: Psychosocial mechanisms underlying children’s development and academic achievement. Educational Psychologist, 56(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2020.1864911
- Smetana, J. G. (2017). Current research on parenting styles, dimensions, and beliefs. Current opinion in psychology, 15, 19-25.
- Smith, J., & Silva, A. (2024). Investigating the connection between spirituality and successful aging among older adults in Portugal. Journal of Aging Studies, 45(2), 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2024.01.001
- Sonja Van Wyk (2023). Spiritual Development in terms of James Fowler's stages of faith: An autoethnography. DOI.10.13140/RG.2.2.23137.38243.
- S.T. Mallery and P.Mallery (2022). Centers of value and the quest for meaning in faith development: A measurement approach. DOI.10.3389/fpsyg.2022.975160.
- Steinberg, L. (2001). We Know Some Things: Parent-Adolescent Relationships in Retrospect and Prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11(1), 1-19.
- Sukanya, R., Janardhana, N., M. p., & D, M. (2019). A Review of Scales of Perceived Parenting Style. journal of mental health and human behaviour, 24(2), 73-77.
- Susan Troy (2008). Fowler James W. Stages of faith, The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning.
- Teodorczyk, P., Najechalski, P., Walędziak, M., & Różańska-Walędziak, A. (2025, January). Healthy Aging in a Religious Congregation: A Study About Lifestyles and Health Behaviors Among Consecrated Women in Poland and Other Countries. In Healthcare (Vol. 13, No. 8, p. 882). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.
- The New Jerusalem Bible John 14:9 https://www.bible.com/bible/111/JHN.14.9-10.NIV
- Theofanidis, D., & Fountouki, A. (2018). Limitations and delimitations in the research process. Perioperative Nursing, 7(3), 155–162.
- Thomas Armstrong (2020). The stages of faith according to James W. Fowler.
- Walper, S., & Spangler, S. (2017). Parenting in migrant and non-migrant families: The role of culture and acculturation. In N. K. Schuengel, J. E. Grusec, & W. A. Collins (Eds.), Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, mothering, and fathering in non-Western cultures (pp. 87–108). Springer.
- Watts G., Cerchiaro F., Schnabel L. (2024). The Spiritual Turn and “Feminization”: Turning a Gender Lens on Spirituality. Sociology of Religion
- Wilson, A. (2015). Heavenly Parents: Understanding the Dual Nature of God. [Publisher].
- WILSON, W. B. A. (2015). Reverend Moon's Early Teaching on God as Heavenly Parent. Journal of Unification Studies Vol, 16, 1-26.
- Yadav, P., Shukla, P., Debasish, p., & Suprakash, C. (2021, October). A correlational study between perceived parenting style, psychological well-being, and emotional intelligence among adolescents. industrial psychiatry journal, S108-S114.
- 2019 Kenya Population and House Census: Population by County and Sub-county, Volume 1. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 2019. pp. 26, 35, 44. ISBN 9789966102096.
Parents play a crucial role in shaping their children's growth and future, as their behavior and interactions during
upbringing significantly influence who their children become. Quantitative method and a correlational survey design were
used to investigate the relationship between the perceived parenting styles and spirituality among the consecrated women
in Kiambu County, Kenya. The study used four objectives on the consecrated women first examined the perceived parenting
styles, second investigated the levels of spirituality, third established the relationship between the perceived parenting styles
and levels of spirituality and lastly the relationship between demographic characteristics and level of spirituality of
consecrated women. The study was supported by Baumrind’s Parenting Styles theory and Spiritual Development Theory.
To determine the sample size the researcher used proportionate stratified random sampling and simple random techniques.
The target population was 547 with a sample size of 248 consecrated women in Kiambu County. Parenting Style Inventory
II (PSI-II) and Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS) was employed in the study to gather information from the participants.
The findings showed that authoritarian was the dominant parenting style with 78.2% followed by authoritative parenting
of 55.5% and lastly permissive with highest of 43.7%. Level of spirituality showed low spirituality of 62.6% (149), moderate
spirituality of 37.0% (88) and high of 0.4% (1). Relationship between parenting styles and spirituality showed permissive
and authoritative parenting experienced negative correlations r (238) = –.24, p < .001 and r (238) = –.21, p = .001 respectively
while authoritarian parenting had no significant correlation with spirituality showing r (238) = –.03, p = .67. Further
demographic characteristics showed no significant associations: age, r (238) = –.06, p = .39; education, r (238) = –.10, p = .14.
The study recommended having workshop on parenting to help parent understand influence parenting styles have to
children as they grow up facilitated by psychologists or consecrated women.
Keywords :
Parenting Styles, Spirituality, Consecrated Women.