Authors : Husam Hasan Abdulaali; Christopher Teh Boon Sung; Afrah Mahdi Saleh Al-Obaidi; Muhammad Malik Yassin

Volume/Issue : Volume 10 - 2025, Issue 9 - September

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/4csacudu

Scribd : https://tinyurl.com/4y6arrpy

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25sep1363

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Note : Google Scholar may take 30 to 40 days to display the article.

Abstract : Soil salinity is a significant and pressing environmental issue, particularly in arid and semi-arid climates. These climates depend on highly saline water for irrigation, and their rainfall is very little and insufficient to leach salts from the plant's root zone (surface layer of soil). Therefore, researchers have resorted to many methods to manage saline soils (salt extraction, addition of amendments, cultivation of halophytic plants, removal of salts from the soil surface, etc.). However, not all reclamation techniques are suitable for all types of soils affected by salinity. One of the most important and widely used methods is salt leaching (Adding water to dissolve salts and transport them through water movement down the soil and away from the root zone). However, if added in excessive quantities, this method consumes water, removes nutrients from the soil, and raises the groundwater level. Researchers developed differential mathematical equations to calculate the quantity of water that must be applied to leach the salinity from the soil while minimising water usage to avoid leaching away the plant's nutrients and preventing the rise of the groundwater. However, the reclamation strategy must be designed based on the site's detailed requirements, including the type of soil, quantity and quality of salts, groundwater level, water availability, plant species, and climate, taking into account the relationships between these factors. These equations did not account for all the previous parameters and were limited to the specific conditions of the study sites. Simulation programs are essential for creating equations or methods that can be widely applied, as it is difficult to provide all the necessary conditions (parameters) in specific locations. Therefore, this study reviewed all the factors affecting extraction that researchers studied in previous studies, in addition to the most common, applied, and reliable simulation methods in this field. Thus, simulation can be done by applying these parameters.

Keywords : Reclamation of Saline Soils, Leaching Equations, Numerical Modelling and Simulation (HYDRUS, Artificial Intelligence).

References :

1. Al-Fadhli, S. Abdul-Aziz and Al-Moussawi, N. Abdul-Sajjad (2007). Spatial Variation of Salinity Phenomenon in the Alluvial Plain Territory, Basra Literature Journal, College of Arts, University of Basrah. 1(43): 254-230.
2. Al-Tamimi, M., Green, S., Abou Dahr, W., Al-Muaini, A., Lyra, D., Ammar, K., ... & Clothier, B. (2023). Salt dynamics, leaching requirements, and leaching fractions during irrigation of a halophyte with different saline waters. Soil Research, 62(1).
3. Anctil, F., & Rat, A. (2005). Evaluation of neural network streamflow forecasting on 47 watersheds. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering. 10(1): 85–88.
4. Aslam, M. and S. A. Prathapar (2006). Strategies to mitigate secondary salinisation in the Indus Basin of Pakistan: A selective review. Research Report 97. Colombo, Sri Lanka. International Water Management Institute (IWMI).
5. Atta, K., Mondal, S., Gorai, S., Singh, A. P., Kumari, A., Ghosh, T., ... & Jespersen, D. (2023). Impacts of salinity stress on crop plants: Improving salt tolerance through genetic and molecular dissection. Frontiers in Plant Science, 14, 1241736.
6. Ayers, R.S, and D.W. Westcot (1994). Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage. 29. Rome. 13-56.
7. Bashir, R. N., Saeed, M., Al-Sarem, M., Marie, R., Faheem, M., Karrar, A. E., & Elhussein, B. (2023). Smart reference evapotranspiration using Internet of Things and hybrid ensemble machine learning approach. Internet of Things, 24, 100962.
8. Beven, K.; Germann, P. (1982). Macropores and water flow in soils. Water Resour. Res. 18, 1311–1325.
9. Biswas A, Biswas A (2014) Comprehensive approaches in rehabilitating salt affected soils: a review on Indian perspective. Open Trans Geosci 1(1):13–24.
10. Burt, C. M., & Isbell, B. (2005). Leaching of accumulated soil salinity under drip irrigation. Transactions of the ASAE, 48(6), 2115-2121.
11. Caon, L., Watson, J., Gomes da Silva, C., Vargas, R., Khechimi, W., Bottigliero, F., & Verbeke, I. (2019). The multi-faced role of soil in the Near East and North Africa.
12. Chappell, M., Dove, S. K., van Iersel, M. W., Thomas, P. A., & Ruter, J. (2013). Implementation of wireless sensor networks for irrigation control in three container nurseries. HortTechnology, 23(6), 747-753. doi:10.21273/HORTTECH.23.6.747.
13. Chele, K. H., Tinte, M. M., Piater, L. A., Dubery, I. A., & Tugizimana, F. (2021). Soil salinity, a serious environmental issue and plant responses: A metabolomics perspective. Metabolites, 11(11), 724.
14. Cordeiro, G.G. (2001). Salinidade em agricultura irrigada (conceitos básicos e práticos). Embrapa Semiárido, Petrolina, Brasil.
15. Corwin, D. L., Rhoades, J. D., & Šimůnek, J. (2007). Leaching requirement for soil salinity control: Steady-state versus transient models. agricultural water management, 90(3), 165-180.
16. Costa, J. P. N.; Cavalcante Junior, E. G.; Medeiros, J. F.; Guedes, R. A. A. (2015). Evapotranspiration and corn yield the blades and different salinity of irrigation water. Irriga, Botucatu, p. 74-80. Edição Especial Irriga & Inovagri.
17. Debez, A., Huchzermeyer, B., Abdelly, C., & Koyro, H. W. (2010). Current challenges and future opportunities for a sustainable utilisation of halophytes. In Sabkha Ecosystems: Volume III: Africa and Southern Europe (pp. 59-77). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
18. Dias, E.G.C.S. (2001). Avaliação de impacto ambiental de projetos de mineração no estado de São Paulo: a etapa de acompanhamento, PhD Dissertation, Escola Politécnica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
19. Dieleman, P.J. (1963). Reclamation of salt effect soil in Iraq. International Institute for land reclamation, Publication, No. 11. The Netherland.
20. Dos Santos, T. B., Ribas, A. F., de Souza, S. G. H., Budzinski, I. G. F., & Domingues, D. S. (2022). Physiological responses to drought, salinity, and heat stress in plants: a review. Stresses, 2(1), 113-135.
21. Dudley, L. M., Ben-Gal, A., & Shani, U. (2008). Influence of plant, soil, and water on the leaching fraction. Vadose Zone Journal, 7(2), 420-425.
22. Fay, L. and X. Shi (2012). Environmental impacts of chemicals for snow and ice control: State of the knowledge. Water Air Soil Pollut., 223: 2751–2770.
23. Gangwar, P., Singh, R., Trivedi, M., & Tiwari, R. K. (2020). Sodic soil: Management and reclamation strategies. Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development: Volume 2: Biodiversity, Soil and Waste Management, 175-190.
24. Ghafoor, A., M. Qadir and G. Murtaza. (2004). Salt Affected Soils Principles of Management. Allied Book Centre, Urdu Bazar, Lahore, Pakistan.
25. Ghanbarian-Alavijeh, B., Liaghat, A., & Sohrabi, S. (2010). Estimating saturated hydraulic conductivity from soil physical properties using neural networks model. World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 4: 108-113.
26. Gonçalves, M.C.; Šim° unek, J.; Ramos, T.B.; Martins, J.C.; Neves, M.J.; Pires, F.P. (2006). Multicomponent solute transport in soil lysimeters irrigated with waters of different quality. Water Resour. Res. 42, W08401.
27. Gürgülü, H., & Ul, M. A. (2024). Different effects of irrigation water salinity and leaching fractions on pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivation in soilless culture. Agriculture, 14(6), 827.
28. Hamza, A., Tahir, M. A., Sarwar, G., & Luqman, M. (2021). Systematic use of saline water with leaching fraction for improving Soil health under arid conditions.
29. Harker, D.; Mikalson, D. (1990). Leaching of a highly saline-sodic soil in southern Alberta: A laboratory study. Can. J. Soil Sci. 70, 509–514.
30. Harris, T. M., & Boardman, J. (1998). Alternative approaches to soil erosion prediction and conservation using expert systems and neural networks. In: Boardman J., Favis-Mortlock D. (eds) Modelling Soil Erosion by Water. (pp. 461-477): Springer.
31. Hassani, A., Azapagic, A., & Shokri, N. (2021). Global predictions of primary soil salinisation under changing climate in the 21st century. Nature communications, 12(1), 6663.
32. Hoffman GJ, Van Genuchten MT (1983) Soil properties and efficient water use: water management for salinity control. In ‘Limitations to efficient water use in crop production’. (Eds HM Taylor, WR Jordan, TR Sinclair) pp. 73–85. (American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Crop Science Society of America, Inc. Soil Science Society of America, Inc.)
33. Hoffman, G. J. (1986). Guidelines for reclamation of salt-affected soils. Appl. Agric. Res. 1(2): 65-72.
34. Hoffman, G.J. (1980). Alleviating salinity stress. Modifying the cRoot environment to reduce crosp stress. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, chap.9, pp. 305-343.
35. Hoffman, G. J., & Shannon, M. C. (2007). 4. Salinity. In Developments in agricultural engineering (Vol. 13, pp. 131-160). Elsevier.
36. Hoshan, M. N. (2022). Review of Reclamation of salinity affected soils by leaching and their effect on soil properties and plant growth. Tikrit journal for agricultural sciences, 22(1), 149-168.
37. Hutson, J. L., & Wagenet, R. J. (1995). An overview of LEACHM: a process-based model of water and solute movement, transformations, plant uptake and chemical reactions in the unsaturated zone. Chemical equilibrium and reaction models, 42, 409-422.
38. Jain, A., & Kumar, A. (2006). An evaluation of artificial neural network technique for the determination of infiltration model parameters. Applied Soft Computing. 6(3): 272-282.
39. Jamil, A., Riaz, S., Ashraf, M., & Foolad, M. R. (2011). Gene expression profiling of plants under salt stress. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 30(5), 435-458.
40. Jury, W. A., Jarrell, W. M., & Devitt, D. (1979). Reclamation of saline‐sodic soils by leaching. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 43(6), 1100-1106. DOI:10.2136/sssaj.03615995004300060008x.
41. Karandish, F., & Šimůnek, J. (2016). A comparison of numerical and machine-learning modeling of soil water content with limited input data. Journal of Hydrology, 543, 892-909.
42. Kavuncuoglu, H., Kavuncuoglu, E., Karatas, S. M., Benli, B., Sagdic, O., & Yalcin, H. (2018). Prediction of the antimicrobial activity of walnut (Juglans regia L.) kernel aqueous extracts using artificial neural network and multiple linear regression. Journal of Microbiological Methods. 148: 78-86.
43. Keiffer, C. H., & Ungar, I. A. (2002). Germination and establishment of halophytes on brine‐affected soils. Journal of Applied Ecology, 39(3), 402-415.
44. Keren, R. (1990). Reclamation of saline and, sodic and boron-affected soils. Agricultural salinity assessment and management. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
45. Kharaka, Y.K. & Otton, J.K. (2007). Environmental issues related to oil and gas exploration and production—Preface. Appl. Geochem. 22, 2095–2098.
46. Kochba, M. & Gambash, S.; Avnimelech, Y. (1990). Studies on slow-release fertilisers: 1. Effects of temperature, soil moisture, and water vapor pressure. Soil Sci. 149, 339–343, doi:10.1097/00010694-199006000-00004.
47. Kovda, V.A. (1973). FAO/Uneoco. Irrigation, drainage and salinity. An International Source Book. Ch. 6 (155-176).
48. Kramer, I., & Mau, Y. (2023). Modeling the Effects of Salinity and Sodicity in Agricultural Systems. Water Resources Research, 59(6), e2023WR034750.
49. Krofft, C. E., Pickens, J. M., Newby, A. F., Sibley, J. L., & Fain, G. B. (2020). The effect of leaching fraction-based irrigation on fertiliser longevity and leachate nutrient content in a greenhouse environment. Horticulturae, 6(3), 43.
50. Lacerda, C. F. De; Ferreira, J. F. S.; Suarez, D. L; Freitas, E. D.; Liu, X. Ribeiro, A. De A. (2018). Evidências de perdas de nitrogênio e potássio em colunas de solo cultivadas com milho sob estresse salino. Revista brasileira de engenharia agrícola e ambiental, Campina Grande, v. 22, n. 8, p. 553-557.
51. Lacerda, C. F.; Ferreira, J. F. S.; Liu, X.; Suarez, D. L. (2016). Evapotranspiration as a criterion to estimate nitrogen requirement of maise under salt stress. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, Berlin, v. 202, p. 192-202.
52. Lazarovitch, N., Warrick, A., Furman, A., & Zerihun, D. (2009). Subsurface water distribution from furrows described by moment analyses. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. 135(1): 7-12.
53. Li, S., Luo, W., Jia, Z., Tang, S., & Chen, C. (2018). The effect of natural rainfall on salt leaching under watertable management. Land Degradation & Development, 29(6), 1953-1961.
54. Machado, R. M. A., & Serralheiro, R. P. (2017). Soil salinity: effect on vegetable crop growth. Management practices to prevent and mitigate soil salinisation. Horticulturae, 3(2), 30.
55. Mahanta KK, Kansal ML, & Mishra GC (2015). Managing salt affected soils: issues and strategies. Sky J Soil Sci Environ Manag 4(1):1–9.
56. Manzoor, M. Z., Sarwar, G., Aftab, M., Tahir, M. A., & Zafar, A. (2019). Role of leaching fraction to mitigate adverse effects of saline water on soil properties. Journal of Agricultural Research (JAR)., 57(4), 275-280.
57. Marshall, T. J., Holmes, J. W., & Rose, C. W. (1996). Soil physics. Cambridge university press.
58. Million, J. B., & Yeager, T. H. (2019). Testing an automated irrigation system based on leaching fraction testing and weather in a container nursery. HortTechnology, 29(2), 114-121.
59. Million, J.B. & Yeager, T.H. (2020). Periodic versus real-time adjustment of a leaching fraction-based container-grown plant. Hortic. Sci., 55, 83–88, doi:10.21273/HORTSCI14402-19.
60. Ndiaye, M., Diop, L., Sarr, A., Wane, Y. D., Diatta, I., & Seck, S. M. (2022). Evaluation of the Effect of Different Leaching Fractions on Soil Salinity. Computational Water, Energy, and Environmental Engineering, 11(4), 116-133.
61. Osman, K. T. (2018). Management of soil problems. Springer.
62. Oster, J. D., Shainberg, I., & Abrol, I. P. (1999). Reclamation of salt‐affected soils. Agricultural drainage, 38, 659-691.
63. Owen, J. S., LeBude, A. V., Fulcher, A., & Oki, L. R. (2019). Leaching Fraction: A Tool to Schedule Irrigation for Container-Grown Nursery Crops.
64. Owen, J.S., Jr.; Warren, S.L.; Bilderback, T.E.; Albano, J.P. (2008). Phosphorus rate, leaching fraction, and substrate influence on influent quantity, effluent nutrient content, and response of a containerised woody ornamental crop. Hortic. Sci. 43, 906–912, doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.43.3.906.
65. Palácios, O. V. (1969). y Aceves, EN, Instructivo para el muestreo registro de dados e interpretacion de calidad del água para riego agrícola. Colegio de postgraduagos. Escuela Nacional de agricultura, Chapingo, Brasil.
66. Pariente, S. (2001). Soluble salts dynamics in the soil under different climatic conditions. Catena, 43, 307–321.
67. Prathapar, S.A.; Robbins, C.W.; Meyer, W.S.; Jayawardane, N.S. (1992). Models for estimating capillary rise in a heavy clay soil with a saline shallow water table. Irrig. Sci. 13, 1–7.
68. Qadir, M., Ghafoor, A., & Murtaza, G. (2000). Amelioration strategies for saline soils: a review. Land Degradation & Development, 11(6), 501-521.
69. Rasouli, F., Kiani Pouya, A., & Šimůnek, J. (2013). Modeling the effects of saline water use in wheat-cultivated lands using the UNSATCHEM model. Irrigation Science, 31(5), 1009-1024.
70. Reading, L. P., Baumgartl, T., Bristow, K. L., & Lockington, D. A. (2012). Applying HYDRUS to flow in a sodic clay soil with solution composition–dependent hydraulic conductivity. Vadose Zone Journal, 11(2), vzj2011-0137.
71. Reeve, R.C. (1957). The relation of salinity to irrigation and drainage requirements. In: Proceedings of Third Congress on Irrigation and Drainage. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, pp.175-187.
72. Rengasamy, P., & Olsson, K. A. (1991). Sodicity and soil structure. Soil Research, 29(6), 935-952.
73. Rhoades, J. D. (1974). Drainage for salinity control. Drainage for agriculture, 17, 433-461.
74. Rhoades, J. D., & Merrill, S. D. (1976). Man-made factors: assessing the suitability of water for irrigation: theoretical and empirical approaches. FAO Soils Bulletins (FAO). no. 31.
75. Rhoades, J. D., & Loveday, J. (1990). Salinity in irrigated agriculture. In: Stewart, D.R., Nielsen, D.R., Eds, Irrigation of agricultural crops. ASA. CSSA. SSSA. Madison. pp. 1089-1142.
76. Richards, L. A. (1954). Diagnosis and Improvement of. Saline and Alkali Soils. Handbook, 60, 129-134.
77. Rosa, D., Mayol, F., Moreno, J., Bonson, T., & Lozano, S. (1999). An expert system/neural network model (ImpelERO) for evaluating agricultural soil erosion in Andalucia region, southern Spain. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 73(3): 211-226.
78. Sai Kachout, S., Ben Mansoura, A., Jaffel Hamza, K., Leclerc, J. C., Rejeb, M. N., & Ouerghi, Z. (2011). Leaf–water relations and ion concentrations of the halophyte Atriplex hortensis in response to salinity and water stress. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 33(2), 335-342.
79. Schaap, M. G., Leij, F. J., & Van Genuchten, M. T. (2001). Rosetta: A computer program for estimating soil hydraulic parameters with hierarchical pedotransfer functions. Journal of Hydrology. 251(3-4): 163-176.
80. Shainberg, I. & Letey, J. (1984). Response of soils to sodic and saline conditions. Hilgardia, 52, 1–57.
81. Shankar, V., & Evelin, H. (2019). Strategies for reclamation of saline soils. In Microorganisms in Saline Environments: Strategies and Functions (pp. 439-449). Springer, Cham.
82. Sharma, B.R. & Minhas, P.S. (2005). Strategies for managing saline/alkali waters for sustainable agricultural production in South Asia. Agric. Water Manag. 78, 136–151.
83. Shaw, R.J. & Thorburn, P.J. (1985). Prediction of leaching fraction from soil properties, irrigation water and rainfall. Irrig. Sci. 6, 73–83.
84. Shaygan, M. & Baumgartl, T. (2020). Simulation of the effect of climate variability on reclamation success of brine-affected soil in semi-arid environments. Sustainability, 12, 371.
85. Shaygan, M., Baumgartl, T., Arnold, S., & Reading, L. P. (2018). The effect of soil physical amendments on reclamation of a saline-sodic soil: Simulation of salt leaching using HYDRUS-1D. Soil Research, 56(8), 829-845.
86. Shaygan, M., Reading, L. P., Arnold, S., & Baumgartl, T. (2018). Modeling the effect of soil physical amendments on reclamation and revegetation success of a saline-sodic soil in a semi-arid environment. Arid Land Research and Management, 32(4), 379-406.
87. Shi, X., Wang, H., Song, J., Lv, X., Li, W., Li, B., & Shi, J. (2021). Impact of saline soil improvement measures on salt content in the abandonment-reclamation process. Soil and Tillage Research, 208, 104867.
88. Shokri, N., Hassani, A., & Sahimi, M. (2024). Multi‐scale soil salinisation dynamics from global to pore scale: A review. Reviews of Geophysics, 62(4), e2023RG000804.
89. Shrivastava, P., & Kumar, R. (2015). Soil salinity: A serious environmental issue and plant growth promoting bacteria as one of the tools for its alleviation. Saudi journal of biological sciences, 22(2), 123-131.
90. Šimůnek, J., & Suarez, D. L. (1997). Sodic soil reclamation using multicomponent transport modeling. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 123(5), 367-376.
91. Šimůnek, J., Šejna, M., Saito, H., Sakai, M., & van Genuchten, M. T. (2013). The HYDRUS-1D software package for simulating the one-dimensional movement of water. Heat, and Multiple Solutes in Variably-Saturated Media, 4.
92. Šimůnek, J., Šejna, M., Saito, H., Sakai, M., & Van Genuchten, M. T. (2008). The HYDRUS-1D software package for simulating the movement of water, heat, and multiple solutes in variably saturated media. Version, 4, 315.
93. Simunek, J., van Genuchten, M. T., & Sejna, M. (2008). Development and applications of the HYDRUS and STANMOD software packages and related codes. Vadose zone journal, 7(2), 587-600.
94. Siyal, A. A., & LEEDS-HARRISON, P. B. (2001). Improving the Leaching Efficiency for Reclamation of Saline Clay Aggregated Soil (Doctoral dissertation, Cranfield University at Silsoe).
95. Stanley, J. (2012). Using leaching fractions to maximise irrigation efficiency©. Proc. Int. Plant Propag. Soc. 62, 331–334, doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2013.1014.74.
96. Stavi, I., Thevs, N., & Priori, S. (2021). Soil Salinity and Sodicity in Drylands: A Review of Causes, Effects, Monitoring, and Restoration Measures. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 9, 712831. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.712831
97. Tunc, T., & Sahin, U. (2015). The changes in the physical and hydraulic properties of a loamy soil under irrigation with simpler-reclaimed wastewaters. Agricultural Water Management, 158, 213-224.
98. Tyler, H.H.; Warren, S.L.; Bilderback, T.E. (1996). Reduced leaching fractions improve irrigation use efficiency and nutrient efficacy. J. Environ. Hortic. 14, 199–204.
99. Ullah, A., Bano, A., & Khan, N. (2021). Climate change and salinity effects on crops and chemical communication between plants and plant growth-promoting microorganisms under stress. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, 618092.
100. Warrence, N. J., Bauder, J. W., & Pearson, K. E. (2002). Basics of salinity and sodicity effects on soil physical properties. Departement of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University-Bozeman, MT, 129, 1-29.
101. Westhoff, S., Clay, D. E., Osterloh, K., Clay, S. A., DeSutter, T. M., Nleya, T., ... & Sandhu, D. (2024). An Introduction to Salinity and Sodicity. Salinity and Sodicity: A Growing Global Challenge to Food Security, Environmental Quality and Soil Resilience, 1.
102. Yadav, S., Irfan, M., Ahmad, A., & Hayat, S. (2011). Causes of salinity and plant manifestations to salt stress: a review. Journal of environmental biology, 32(5), 667.
103. Zeng, W.; C.Xu; J. Wu and J.Huang (2014). Soil salt leaching under different irrigation regimes: HYDRUS-1D modelling and analysis. J. Arid Land, 6(1): 44−58.