Authors : Saheed Tunde Mohammed; Joseph Adebayo Ige; Oluremi Rotimi Johnson; Idowu Ayobami Faruq

Volume/Issue : Volume 11 - 2026, Issue 8 - August

---

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/bdnsph6p

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/26aug1054

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

---

Abstract : Rising demand for conventional aggregates and the growing volume of agro-industrial waste have renewed interest in palm kernel shell (PKS) as an unbound granular and bitumen-bound pavement material. This study characterizes raw and lime-, cement-, and cement-lime-coated PKS and evaluates their engineering performance relative to granite and stone dust. Microstructural and chemical properties of PKS ash were probed via electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and X-ray fluorescence, while the conventional aggregates were characterized through particle size distribution together with impact and crushing value testing.

Keywords : Palm Kernel Shell, Unbound Granular Material, Aggregate Stabilization, Hot Mix Asphalt, California Bearing Ratio, Sustainable Pavement Materials.

References :

1. Adrian, O. O., and Ogbeifun, P. N. (2025). Investigation of the use of palm kernel shell as partial replacement of coarse aggregate in rigid pavement. NIPES Journal of Energy Technology and Environment, 7(3), 116–126.
2. Ahmed, M. M., Sadoon, A., Bassuoni, M. T., and Ghazy, A. (2024). Utilizing agricultural residues from hot and cold climates as sustainable SCMs for low-carbon concrete. Sustainability, 16(23), 10715.
3. Baffour-Awuah, E., Akinlabi, S. A., Jen, T. C., Hassan, S., Okokpujie, I. P., and Ishola, F. (2021). Characteristics of palm kernel shell and palm kernel shell-polymer composites: a review. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1107(1), 012090.
4. Bagshaw, S., Kemmitt, T., Brooke, S., Waterland, M., and Fertel, L. (2021). Hydrophobic chemical treatment of aggregate surfaces to re-engineer the mineral/bitumen interface and improve bitumen adhesion. Road Materials and Pavement Design, 22(8), 1734–1755.
5. Dadzie, D. K., Kaliluthin, A. K., and Raj Kumar, D. (2020). Exploration of palm kernel use in construction: a review. In International Conference on Sustainable Civil Engineering Structures and Construction Materials (pp. 1411–1423). Singapore: Springer Nature.
6. Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH). (2013). General specifications for roads and bridges. Abuja, Nigeria.
7. Ikumapayi, O. M., and Akinlabi, E. T. (2018). Composition, characteristics and socioeconomic benefits of palm kernel shell exploitation — an overview. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology.
8. Kafle, B., Baghbani, A., Pempeit, R., and Shrestha, K. (2024). Investigating the mechanical behaviour of unbound granular material for road pavement construction applications: a Western Victoria case study. International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering, 10(2), 29.
9. Khan, Z. A., Balunaini, U., Nguyen, N. H., and Costa, S. (2024). Evaluation of cement-treated recycled concrete aggregates for sustainable pavement base/subbase construction. Construction and Building Materials, 449, 138417.
10. Loganina, V. I., et al. (2021). Improving the properties of stabilized bio-aggregates through cementitious coating. Construction Materials Science (in press).
11. Lyapin, A., et al. (2020). Sustainable aggregate resource management: challenges and prospects. Resources Policy, 68, 101718.
12. Marzouk, M., et al. (2023). Stabilization of agricultural waste aggregates for pavement applications: a review. Construction and Building Materials, 366, 130189.
13. Mohammed, T. S., Adegoke, C. W., and Olowosulu, A. T. (2014). Use of palm kernel shell as fine aggregate replacement in asphaltic concrete. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 33(4), 528–534.
14. Olugbenga, A. G., et al. (2015). Palm kernel shell as partial replacement for fine and coarse aggregate in asphalt mix. Journal of Civil Engineering Research, 5(3), 68–74.
15. Oyedepo, O. J., and Olukanni, D. O. (2015). Palm kernel shell and periwinkle shell as partial replacement for coarse aggregate in asphaltic concrete. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 10(9), 1104–1113.
16. Ramadhansyah, P. J., et al. (2014). Volumetric properties of asphalt mixture with cubical aggregates. Jurnal Teknologi, 70(7), 1–6.
17. Yankai, N., and Deechongkit, S. (2025). Aggregate scarcity and supply-chain implications for pavement construction in developing economies. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 25, 101234.